The French Revolution (1789-1799)

    The French Revolution was a big event in world history. It started in 1789 and lasted until 1799. This was a time when many people in France wanted change. The people were unhappy with their king, the rich nobles, and the unfair way the country was ruled. They wanted liberty, equality, and fraternity, which means freedom, fairness, and brotherhood.

The French Revolution (1789-1799)

Life in France Before the Revolution

Before the Revolution, France was ruled by King Louis XVI. He had all the power, and he lived in a huge palace called Versailles. Life was good for the king and the nobles, who were very rich and had many privileges. They did not pay many taxes, so they kept most of their money.

However, life was hard for common people, especially the peasants. They worked hard, paid high taxes, and had little money. There was often not enough food to eat. The poor people were called the "Third Estate," and they had almost no power or rights. They felt it was unfair that the rich lived so well while they suffered.

The Ideas of the Enlightenment

In the 1700s, some thinkers, like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu, began talking about new ideas. They believed people should have more freedom and equality. They thought the king should not have all the power, and that people should choose their leaders. These ideas spread in France and made people want change.

Financial Problems

By the late 1780s, France had serious money problems. The country had spent a lot of money fighting wars, especially helping America gain its freedom from Britain. Now, France was in debt. King Louis XVI tried to raise taxes, but the people were angry. He called a meeting of the "Estates-General" in May 1789 to discuss taxes and the country's problems.

The Estates-General and the Tennis Court Oath

The Estates-General was a gathering of people from the three "estates": the clergy (church leaders), the nobles, and the common people (Third Estate). Each group had one vote, but this was unfair because the Third Estate represented most of the people. The Third Estate wanted more votes to have a fair say, but the king refused.

Frustrated, the Third Estate formed their own group called the "National Assembly" in June 1789. They wanted to make decisions for all of France. When they were locked out of their meeting room, they met in a nearby tennis court and took the "Tennis Court Oath." They promised to stay together until they created a new constitution for France. This was a big step toward the Revolution.

The Storming of the Bastille

On July 14, 1789, people in Paris, the capital of France, were very angry and scared. They were afraid the king would use soldiers to stop the National Assembly. Crowds of people marched to a prison called the Bastille. The Bastille was a symbol of the king's power and was believed to have political prisoners inside, though there were only a few. The people stormed the Bastille, freeing the prisoners and taking weapons. This event showed that the people were ready to fight for their freedom, and July 14 is still celebrated in France today as Bastille Day.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

In August 1789, the National Assembly made a document called the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." This document said that all men are born free and equal. It promised freedom of speech, religion, and equal justice. The Declaration was a big change and showed that France was moving towards a fairer system.

The March on Versailles

In October 1789, thousands of women in Paris were angry because there was not enough bread, and the prices were too high. They marched to the king's palace in Versailles, about 12 miles from Paris. They were angry at the king and the queen, Marie Antoinette, who was known for her rich lifestyle. The women demanded bread and forced the king and his family to move to Paris, where they could keep a close watch on them. This showed that the people had power over the king.

France Becomes a Republic

In 1791, the National Assembly wrote a new constitution that limited the king's power. But many people still wanted more change. In 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic, meaning the people would rule instead of a king. King Louis XVI was put on trial for treason (betraying his country) because he tried to escape and get help from other countries to stop the Revolution.

The Reign of Terror

In January 1793, King Louis XVI was found guilty and was executed by guillotine, a machine with a blade used for beheading. His death shocked Europe. France now had enemies inside and outside the country. Neighboring countries were afraid that the Revolution would spread and threaten their own kings, so they went to war with France.

Inside France, there was chaos. A group called the Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, took control. They were very strict and wanted to get rid of anyone who did not support the Revolution. This period was called the "Reign of Terror." Thousands of people, including Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed by guillotine. Even innocent people were not safe. Many people lived in fear until Robespierre himself was executed in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.

The Rise of Napoleon

After the Reign of Terror, France was still unstable. The government was weak, and people wanted strong leadership. In 1799, a young military general named Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup (a sudden takeover). He became the leader of France, ending the Revolution. Although Napoleon brought order and new laws to France, he also became an emperor later, turning France back into a type of monarchy. But he spread many of the Revolution's ideas across Europe, especially ideas about equality and justice.

The Legacy of the French Revolution

The French Revolution changed France and the world forever. It ended the monarchy and made people think about their rights. It inspired other countries to fight for freedom and democracy. Even today, people talk about liberty, equality, and fraternity, the values that the Revolution tried to achieve.

The Revolution was a hard and bloody time, but it showed the power of the people and made people believe in the possibility of a fairer society. Although it ended with Napoleon, the ideas of the French Revolution spread across Europe and helped shape the modern world. 

Augustus Caesar: The Architect of Roman Empire

Roman Empire's Master Builder: Augustus Caesar

            Among the most important individuals in ancient Roman history is Gaius Octavius, often known as Augustus Caesar. He was not just the first Roman emperor but also a brilliant administrator, politician, and strategist. The Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire under his rule, which had a lasting impact on the development of Western civilization.

Augustus Caesar.

Beginnings and Path to Power:

            Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC, into a wealthy family with strong political ties. Julius Caesar, the renowned statesman and general, was his great-uncle. Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC marked the beginning of Augustus' ascent to power. He inherited Caesar's troops' allegiance and a substantial income at the age of eighteen, which he masterfully used to further his political goals.

After a series of calculated moves and alliances. Augustus beat adversaries Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC to win the subsequent power war. After this resounding triumph, he assumed absolute power over Rome.

The Rule of Augustus:

            From 27 BC until his death in 14 AD, Augustus governed as emperor. He instituted a number of reforms during his protracted rule that revolutionized Roman society and cemented his authority. His creation of the Principate, a new form of administration that blended aspects of autocracy and republicanism, was one of his greatest accomplishments. Augustus retained the appearance of republican institutions, but in reality, he ruled as princeps, or "first citizen."

In order to preserve order and secure his rule, Augustus launched large-scale public works initiatives across the empire, building monuments, aqueducts, and highways. In order to increase the Roman military's efficiency and fidelity to the imperial crown, he also reformed it.

Augustus's Statue in Rome.

Pax Romana and Cultural Renaissance:

            The Roman Empire had a time of comparatively calm and prosperity under Augustus' reign, which is referred to as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace." Unprecedented cultural and economic success, as well as architectural wonders like the building of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum of Augustus, occurred during this period.

Augustus encouraged a literary and artistic renaissance that gave rise to well-known poets like Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. During his reign, poets and authors extolled the virtues of Rome's imperial rule, ushering in the golden age of Roman literature.

The consequences and Legacy:

            The impact of Augustus Caesar is significant and long-lasting. He established the groundwork for the Roman Empire and established precedents that influenced Western civilization for generations to come. Under his rule, Rome's imperial expansion and cultural domination began, ushering in a period of stability and prosperity.

Octavian's (63 B.C to AD. 14)

Many Romans respected Augustus for his pragmatist leadership and political acumen, despite his tendency toward autocracy. Through propaganda and art, his image was skillfully constructed to present him as the beneficent emperor who would restore Roman grandeur.

At the age of 75, Augustus Caesar passed away in AD 14, leaving behind a strong empire and a long-lasting legacy. With his reign, the Roman Republic came to an end and a new chapter in human history began, one in which emperors ruled over enormous swaths of territory for generations to come. Being the mastermind behind imperial Rome, Augustus is still regarded as one of the most important historical personalities. 

"Power Is Not Given, It Is Taken." --- Augustus Caesar.   

Why is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Everybody knows that in the city of Pisa in Italy, there is a beautiful tower that "leans" Very ew people know the reason of its leaning Every year thousands of people go there to see the der made of white marble The walls are four meters thick at its base. It has eight story and in 55 meters high. There is a stairway which leads to the top and has 300 steps From as top one can have a magnificent view of the city and the sea which is ten kilometer away.   

Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy.

Now the question arises: What makes this tower lean and why it does not fall? At the top, the tower is five  meters away from the perpendicular. It leans over by five meters If we drop ball from it's top, a would hit the ground five meters away from its base. It was intended as a bell tower for the cathedral which is nearby. Its construction was started in 1174 and completed in 1350 When the construction started nobody thought that it would lean, but it started leaning after the third story was completed. The foundations of the tower were laid sand and this may explain why it leans. Since the tower started leaning, the plans of its constructs were modified and the tower was completed. During the last one hundred years the tower has leaned another 30 cm.

Now the question arises: Even while leaning, why does it not tall?  According to science anything well remain stable till the vertical line drawn from its center of gravity passes through The center of gravity is that point where the whole of the mass of the body is  supposed to be concentrated. Till today the vertical line from the center of gravity has been falling within the base of the tower. That is why it has not fallen. It is believed that when the tower leans further and the line from its center of gravity pass out of its base, it will fall down According to some engineers the tower will definitely fall one day.

"Rome Wasn't Built In A Day. " 

Alexander the Great

    Even after many centuries of his death Alexander the Great is still regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of the world in human history. This brave soldier died in Babylon over 2000 years ago at the age of thirty-three only.

His empire, stretching from Greece to India, disintegrated after his death. But the cities founded by him are still there. It is said that he founded about 70 cities during his short span of life.

Alexander the Great.

The story goes that when Alexander was only a boy of fourteen, he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus whom nobody else had been able to control. He rode this horse in all his battles. This horse died in a battle in India. He built a town and named it after the brave horse.

Alexander's father, Philip, became the king of Macedonia in 359 B.C. He raised his own army and planned an invasion of the great Persian empire. But he was murdered in 336 B.C. in a palace conspiracy. After him, Alexander became the king at the age of twenty.

Macedonia Empire Under Alexander the great.

Alexander had received the training of warfare from his father. The great philosopher Aristotle was his intellectual mentor. After his father's death, a serious, revolt broke out in his kingdom. Alexander restored order in a very short time. The young Alexander attacked the Persian empire about 334 B.C. There he fought two battles and achieved resounding victories. He was well trained in the tactics of warfare. He was a fearless man. After conquering Persia, he attacked Egypt. He conquered Egypt also and established a city called Alexandria at the mouth of river Nile.

Alexander in India.

When Alexander entered Asia Minor, he was shown the chariot of the ancient king Gordius and was told of a legend that whoever could untie the knot binding the chariot would rule the world. Alexander seized a sword and cut the knot. By now Alexander was the king of Macedonia, Greece, Egypt, Persia and Asia-half of the known world. For six more years his army kept on marching and conquered Afghanistan, Hindu Kush, Samarkand, Tashkent and Khyber pass. Then he entered India. 

Porus surrendered to Alexander.

After entering Asia he started living in luxury. He married a rich and beautiful princess, Roxana. He fought his last great battle with the brave Indian king, Porus. He won this battle but with great difficulties. Alexander hoped to reach the river Ganga, but when his soldiers reached the river Beas, they refused to go further. They had been away from their homes for more then eight years. Alexander tried his best to persuade them but they did not move further. They marched back to their homes. Alexander developed high fever on the way and died in June 323 B.C.

There Is Nothing Impossible To Him Who Will Try.  - Alexander the Great

The History Of Australia (From Land to Sea)

 The History Of Australia:

🦘 Australia became inhabitant over 40,000 years ago by the Indigenous Australians or Aborigines, who are believed to have come to Australia by land bridges and short sea crossing from Southeast Asia. These people were hunters and gathers. During that time, oral history was passed down through the generations in the form of tales, myths, and songs. Over the centuries that followed, multiple colloquial language, culture and lifestyle survived in different regions of the continent.

 Map of The Commonwealth of Australia.

🦘 In the 17th Century, the European explorers began to frequent the west and north coast of Australia.

Willam Janszoon (Dutch Explorer).

William Janszoon, a Dutch navigator sighted the Cape York Peninsula in 1606, but made no attempt at settling there. In the mid 18th century. The British had an overcrowded prison population and required a new penal colony. 

James Cook (British Explorer).

In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Britain, naming it New South Wales.

The First Fleet By  Captain James Cook.

In 1788, the first fleet arrived carrying 750 convicts. This was the first penal colony that is now the Sydney.

The Second Fleet Struggle in Port Arthur.

🦘 The second penal colony was called Port Arthur, which is a tourist attraction now. The number of colonies grew over the following decades. Australia grew into a productive farming land and a major wool producer. The mid 19th century witnessed a gold rush in Victoria and New South Wales.

James Cook Landed on Australia.

🦘 In January 1st 1901, the six colonies were federated to form one nation, and the commonwealth of Australia was born. The new constitution aimed at creating a new social, cultural,and economical atmosphere, leaving the pitfalls of the old times behind. Over the following decades, Australia continued to expand and after World War II, there was a mass immigration from Europe. At one point in time, Melbourne became the largest Greek populated city outside of the Athens. the immigration has come from Asian neighbors.

🦘 Now, Australia is flourishing in terms of its national media and international business reputation. Both as a nation and as a continent.

🦘 And Australia is a continent and a country. It is known as the land down under because it is below the Equator.

"Don't worry about the world ending today. It's already tomorrow in Australia" — Charles M. Schulz.

The Story of Sumerian's Civilization

 The Sumerian Civilization emerged upon the flood plain of the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers about 4000 BC. The social structure of the Sumerians was decidedly different from other societies of that and later times. 

Sumerian Civilization Map.

The Sumerian Architect.

The Sumerian communities were city states organised around a temple and ruled by a priesthood.. The temple grounds were separated from the rest of the city.

Irrigation system of Sumerians.

The cities of Sumer were the first to practice intensive, year - round agriculture. They developed core agricultural techniques including large - scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organised irrigation, and the use of a specialised labour force.

The Cuneiform Language 

The Old Buildings of Sumerian Civilization.

In addition to the priests and peasants, there was a class of craftsmen, who devoted most of their time to producing things for either the temples or the warrior-soldiers who protected the temple community. With wars of défense, the role of the warriors was manifested in the rule of kings. 

Some Inventions of Sumerians (  Sun Clock ). 

The Sumerians made the world's first boats, using the canal system, for easy waterborne transportation of people, goods, and cattle. 

The Goddess of Sumerians.

 " Sumer Had devised the system of structural violence that would prevail in every single agrarian state until the modern period, when agriculture ceased to be economic basis of civilization. ". 

                                            —Karen Armstrong.   

The Protestant Reformation

As the Renaissance spread throughout Europe, the standard of living improved and more people could afford to recieve a formal education. These educated people felt that the practices and teachings of the Church were not consistent with the teachings found in the scriptures. So, they began to criticize the Catholic Church. The movement that followed is termed as  “ the Protestant Reformation ”. 

       Reformation in Germany by Luther.

The Protestant Reformation was led by Martin Luther, a monk from Germany.

                        Martin Luther. 

 He collected a list of 95 different points of doctrine where he felt that the Church was incorrect and nailed the list to the door of the Catholic Church in Wittenberg,  Germany, on October 31, 1517.

       Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms.

The movement resulted in the Catholic Church loosing out on the money that they collected in exchange for indulgences.

           King Henry VIII of England.

 King Henry VIII supported the ideas of Luther, and laid the foundations of Protestantism in England, which would later transform England from a Catholic to a Protestant nation.

     Fight between Islam and Protestants.

By 1603, the Protestant Reformation in this country was complete. And Martin Luther founded a new religion known as Lutheranism.

“ The Law Says, “ Do This ”, And It Is Never Done. Grace Says, “ Believe In This ”, And Everything Is Already Done.”  — Martin Luther.   

The Greek Civilization

The earliest Greek civilization thrived nearly 4,000 years ago. The Ancient Greeks lived in Greece and the countries that we now call Bulgaria and Turkey. The Greek Empire was most powerful between 2000 BC and 146 BC.

Ancient Greek Map

Ancient Greece was split into many different states: each state had its own laws, government and money but they shared the same language and religion. The two most important city states were states were Athens and Sparta.

Right side - Athens; Left side - Sparta.

The Greeks focused more on the mind instead of the gods.

Greek Philosopher - Socrates 

They developed new ideas for government, science, philosophy, religion, and art. Their influence is still felt by us today. 

Greek Sculptures 

The word “ democracy ” is Greek; it means “ government by the people ”. The word ‘ theatre ’ is Greek; most modern theatres follow the Greek plan.“ Polis ”, the Greek word for “ city state ” is where the word “ Politics ” came from. The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BC at the Greek city of Olympia.

First Olympic games ( 776 BC )

Throughout the world, buildings have been constructed in the style of Ancient Greece

Greek mythology Gods Painting 

The Ancient Greeks played an important part in the development of the alphabet. The first two letters of the Greek alphabet - alpha and beta - have given us the word “ alphabet.”

“ The Ancient Oracle Said That, I Was The Wisest Of All The Greeks. It Is Because I Alone, Of All The Greeks, Know That I Know Nothing. ” 

                                                              — Socrates.  

The Egyptian Civilization

Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa and it developed around the river Nile. Egypt was an agricultural state. The Egyptian turned desert patches into farmlands, irritating them with the Nile's water. The yearly flooding of the Nile enriched the soil and brought good harvests and wealth to the land. The people of ancient Egypt built mudbrick homes in villages and in country.

Egyptian Civilization Map

The main Egyptian god was Amon Re, the king of all gods. One important Egyptian symbol was that of the solar disk surrounded by the sacred snake. Crocodiles were sacred in the ancient Egypt, and they were even embalmed. Ibis was the sacred bird.

                            Amon Re

Egyptians used hiéroglyphic inscriptions - a writing system using picture symbols or diagrams. These diagrams were thought to have magical powers.

Hieroglyphic Inscriptions

 To preserve the magical power of their art. the Egyptians believed they must copy exactly the style handed down through the ages. This meant that most artists painted in the same way, and the people they painted all looked the same.

The Egyptians loved music and played instruments like the harp. They loved beauty and fashion; eye paint was worn both by men and women. They also used a lot of perfume and jewellery .

The Egyptian people believed that their rulers, or pharaohs, were gods, and that they would continue to work even after their death. So, they preserved the bodies of the kings through the process of mummification. Mummies were entombed and included food, gifts and provisions were kept there for the afterlife.

The Pyramid Of Giza 

The pyramids were built to contain the tombs of pharaohs To avoid the theft of the treasures and tomb's profanation, the architects built a real labyrinth of false passages inside the pyramid, to confuse the thieves. The pyramids were the earliest buildings ever to be made by precisely cutting and putting together great blocks of stone. One of the most famous pyramids is the Great Pyramid of Khufu. It has 2,300,000 blocks and each block in the pyramid weighs 2.5tons.

Mummification 

The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC and lasted for three millennia until the conquest of Alexander the Great.

 “ From The Heights Of These Pyramids, Forty Centuries Look Down Upon Us. ” 

                                   — Napoleon Bonaparte. 

History of France (From Brest To Strasbourg)

The history of France dates back thousands of  years ago when the earliest human being arrived in the area. In ancient times, France was part of the Celtic territory known as Gaul or Gallia. Later,  Gaul was subject to barbarian raids by the  Germanic Franks. 

                 The Frankish King Clovis I.

 In the late 5th century, the  Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul under  his rule , setting the stage for Frankish dominance  in the region for hundreds of years. France  became separate country in the 9th century. 

              French Before The Revolution.

The French society was divided into three separate castes known as estates. The first  estate was made up of priests, and reglious  leaders. The second estate was made up of the  nobility, while third and lowest estate consisted of  everyone else, over 97% of the population of  France.  

In time, most of the western part of France was yielded to the British crown. After the death of the  last Capetian King Charles IV, Edward III of  England claimed the French Throne and started  the Hundred Years' War in 1337.

   Right - King Charles IV of France;Left - Edward III of England.

 With the help of  a France peasant girl, Joan of Arc, Charles VIII  emerged victorious in the war and drove the  English back to Calais. 

    Right - Joan of Arc; Left - Charles III of France.

France became a centralized state where an absolute monarchy was established. The long  Italian Wars ( 1494—1559 )marked the beginning  of early modern France.

France has six overseas departments: French  Guiana in South America; Guadeloupe and  Martinique in the West Indies; Mayotte, an island  formerly part of the Comoros, located in the  Indian Ocean; Reunion, an island in the Indian  Ocean; and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, islands off  the east coast of Canada. In addition, it has  numerous small possessions called overseas  territories and many small islands in the southern  oceans.

Since the 17th century, France has played a major  role in European and world events. In the 20th  century, it has experienced numerous crises, and  the loss of a large empire in Indochina, Algeria,  and West and Equatorial Africa. It has, however,  survived and emerged as an important world  supplier of agricultural and industrial products.  France has been a leading member in the United  Nations, the European Union and NATO, and  remains a strong economic, cultural, and political 

influence in 21st century. 

"You Write To Me That it's Impossible, The Word is not French." — Napoleon Bonaparte.