The French Revolution (1789-1799)

    The French Revolution was a big event in world history. It started in 1789 and lasted until 1799. This was a time when many people in France wanted change. The people were unhappy with their king, the rich nobles, and the unfair way the country was ruled. They wanted liberty, equality, and fraternity, which means freedom, fairness, and brotherhood.

The French Revolution (1789-1799)

Life in France Before the Revolution

Before the Revolution, France was ruled by King Louis XVI. He had all the power, and he lived in a huge palace called Versailles. Life was good for the king and the nobles, who were very rich and had many privileges. They did not pay many taxes, so they kept most of their money.

However, life was hard for common people, especially the peasants. They worked hard, paid high taxes, and had little money. There was often not enough food to eat. The poor people were called the "Third Estate," and they had almost no power or rights. They felt it was unfair that the rich lived so well while they suffered.

The Ideas of the Enlightenment

In the 1700s, some thinkers, like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu, began talking about new ideas. They believed people should have more freedom and equality. They thought the king should not have all the power, and that people should choose their leaders. These ideas spread in France and made people want change.

Financial Problems

By the late 1780s, France had serious money problems. The country had spent a lot of money fighting wars, especially helping America gain its freedom from Britain. Now, France was in debt. King Louis XVI tried to raise taxes, but the people were angry. He called a meeting of the "Estates-General" in May 1789 to discuss taxes and the country's problems.

The Estates-General and the Tennis Court Oath

The Estates-General was a gathering of people from the three "estates": the clergy (church leaders), the nobles, and the common people (Third Estate). Each group had one vote, but this was unfair because the Third Estate represented most of the people. The Third Estate wanted more votes to have a fair say, but the king refused.

Frustrated, the Third Estate formed their own group called the "National Assembly" in June 1789. They wanted to make decisions for all of France. When they were locked out of their meeting room, they met in a nearby tennis court and took the "Tennis Court Oath." They promised to stay together until they created a new constitution for France. This was a big step toward the Revolution.

The Storming of the Bastille

On July 14, 1789, people in Paris, the capital of France, were very angry and scared. They were afraid the king would use soldiers to stop the National Assembly. Crowds of people marched to a prison called the Bastille. The Bastille was a symbol of the king's power and was believed to have political prisoners inside, though there were only a few. The people stormed the Bastille, freeing the prisoners and taking weapons. This event showed that the people were ready to fight for their freedom, and July 14 is still celebrated in France today as Bastille Day.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

In August 1789, the National Assembly made a document called the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." This document said that all men are born free and equal. It promised freedom of speech, religion, and equal justice. The Declaration was a big change and showed that France was moving towards a fairer system.

The March on Versailles

In October 1789, thousands of women in Paris were angry because there was not enough bread, and the prices were too high. They marched to the king's palace in Versailles, about 12 miles from Paris. They were angry at the king and the queen, Marie Antoinette, who was known for her rich lifestyle. The women demanded bread and forced the king and his family to move to Paris, where they could keep a close watch on them. This showed that the people had power over the king.

France Becomes a Republic

In 1791, the National Assembly wrote a new constitution that limited the king's power. But many people still wanted more change. In 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic, meaning the people would rule instead of a king. King Louis XVI was put on trial for treason (betraying his country) because he tried to escape and get help from other countries to stop the Revolution.

The Reign of Terror

In January 1793, King Louis XVI was found guilty and was executed by guillotine, a machine with a blade used for beheading. His death shocked Europe. France now had enemies inside and outside the country. Neighboring countries were afraid that the Revolution would spread and threaten their own kings, so they went to war with France.

Inside France, there was chaos. A group called the Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, took control. They were very strict and wanted to get rid of anyone who did not support the Revolution. This period was called the "Reign of Terror." Thousands of people, including Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed by guillotine. Even innocent people were not safe. Many people lived in fear until Robespierre himself was executed in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.

The Rise of Napoleon

After the Reign of Terror, France was still unstable. The government was weak, and people wanted strong leadership. In 1799, a young military general named Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup (a sudden takeover). He became the leader of France, ending the Revolution. Although Napoleon brought order and new laws to France, he also became an emperor later, turning France back into a type of monarchy. But he spread many of the Revolution's ideas across Europe, especially ideas about equality and justice.

The Legacy of the French Revolution

The French Revolution changed France and the world forever. It ended the monarchy and made people think about their rights. It inspired other countries to fight for freedom and democracy. Even today, people talk about liberty, equality, and fraternity, the values that the Revolution tried to achieve.

The Revolution was a hard and bloody time, but it showed the power of the people and made people believe in the possibility of a fairer society. Although it ended with Napoleon, the ideas of the French Revolution spread across Europe and helped shape the modern world. 

Augustus Caesar: The Architect of Roman Empire

Roman Empire's Master Builder: Augustus Caesar

            Among the most important individuals in ancient Roman history is Gaius Octavius, often known as Augustus Caesar. He was not just the first Roman emperor but also a brilliant administrator, politician, and strategist. The Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire under his rule, which had a lasting impact on the development of Western civilization.

Augustus Caesar.

Beginnings and Path to Power:

            Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC, into a wealthy family with strong political ties. Julius Caesar, the renowned statesman and general, was his great-uncle. Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC marked the beginning of Augustus' ascent to power. He inherited Caesar's troops' allegiance and a substantial income at the age of eighteen, which he masterfully used to further his political goals.

After a series of calculated moves and alliances. Augustus beat adversaries Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC to win the subsequent power war. After this resounding triumph, he assumed absolute power over Rome.

The Rule of Augustus:

            From 27 BC until his death in 14 AD, Augustus governed as emperor. He instituted a number of reforms during his protracted rule that revolutionized Roman society and cemented his authority. His creation of the Principate, a new form of administration that blended aspects of autocracy and republicanism, was one of his greatest accomplishments. Augustus retained the appearance of republican institutions, but in reality, he ruled as princeps, or "first citizen."

In order to preserve order and secure his rule, Augustus launched large-scale public works initiatives across the empire, building monuments, aqueducts, and highways. In order to increase the Roman military's efficiency and fidelity to the imperial crown, he also reformed it.

Augustus's Statue in Rome.

Pax Romana and Cultural Renaissance:

            The Roman Empire had a time of comparatively calm and prosperity under Augustus' reign, which is referred to as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace." Unprecedented cultural and economic success, as well as architectural wonders like the building of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum of Augustus, occurred during this period.

Augustus encouraged a literary and artistic renaissance that gave rise to well-known poets like Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. During his reign, poets and authors extolled the virtues of Rome's imperial rule, ushering in the golden age of Roman literature.

The consequences and Legacy:

            The impact of Augustus Caesar is significant and long-lasting. He established the groundwork for the Roman Empire and established precedents that influenced Western civilization for generations to come. Under his rule, Rome's imperial expansion and cultural domination began, ushering in a period of stability and prosperity.

Octavian's (63 B.C to AD. 14)

Many Romans respected Augustus for his pragmatist leadership and political acumen, despite his tendency toward autocracy. Through propaganda and art, his image was skillfully constructed to present him as the beneficent emperor who would restore Roman grandeur.

At the age of 75, Augustus Caesar passed away in AD 14, leaving behind a strong empire and a long-lasting legacy. With his reign, the Roman Republic came to an end and a new chapter in human history began, one in which emperors ruled over enormous swaths of territory for generations to come. Being the mastermind behind imperial Rome, Augustus is still regarded as one of the most important historical personalities. 

"Power Is Not Given, It Is Taken." --- Augustus Caesar.   

Why is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Everybody knows that in the city of Pisa in Italy, there is a beautiful tower that "leans" Very ew people know the reason of its leaning Every year thousands of people go there to see the der made of white marble The walls are four meters thick at its base. It has eight story and in 55 meters high. There is a stairway which leads to the top and has 300 steps From as top one can have a magnificent view of the city and the sea which is ten kilometer away.   

Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy.

Now the question arises: What makes this tower lean and why it does not fall? At the top, the tower is five  meters away from the perpendicular. It leans over by five meters If we drop ball from it's top, a would hit the ground five meters away from its base. It was intended as a bell tower for the cathedral which is nearby. Its construction was started in 1174 and completed in 1350 When the construction started nobody thought that it would lean, but it started leaning after the third story was completed. The foundations of the tower were laid sand and this may explain why it leans. Since the tower started leaning, the plans of its constructs were modified and the tower was completed. During the last one hundred years the tower has leaned another 30 cm.

Now the question arises: Even while leaning, why does it not tall?  According to science anything well remain stable till the vertical line drawn from its center of gravity passes through The center of gravity is that point where the whole of the mass of the body is  supposed to be concentrated. Till today the vertical line from the center of gravity has been falling within the base of the tower. That is why it has not fallen. It is believed that when the tower leans further and the line from its center of gravity pass out of its base, it will fall down According to some engineers the tower will definitely fall one day.

"Rome Wasn't Built In A Day. " 

Alexander the Great

    Even after many centuries of his death Alexander the Great is still regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of the world in human history. This brave soldier died in Babylon over 2000 years ago at the age of thirty-three only.

His empire, stretching from Greece to India, disintegrated after his death. But the cities founded by him are still there. It is said that he founded about 70 cities during his short span of life.

Alexander the Great.

The story goes that when Alexander was only a boy of fourteen, he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus whom nobody else had been able to control. He rode this horse in all his battles. This horse died in a battle in India. He built a town and named it after the brave horse.

Alexander's father, Philip, became the king of Macedonia in 359 B.C. He raised his own army and planned an invasion of the great Persian empire. But he was murdered in 336 B.C. in a palace conspiracy. After him, Alexander became the king at the age of twenty.

Macedonia Empire Under Alexander the great.

Alexander had received the training of warfare from his father. The great philosopher Aristotle was his intellectual mentor. After his father's death, a serious, revolt broke out in his kingdom. Alexander restored order in a very short time. The young Alexander attacked the Persian empire about 334 B.C. There he fought two battles and achieved resounding victories. He was well trained in the tactics of warfare. He was a fearless man. After conquering Persia, he attacked Egypt. He conquered Egypt also and established a city called Alexandria at the mouth of river Nile.

Alexander in India.

When Alexander entered Asia Minor, he was shown the chariot of the ancient king Gordius and was told of a legend that whoever could untie the knot binding the chariot would rule the world. Alexander seized a sword and cut the knot. By now Alexander was the king of Macedonia, Greece, Egypt, Persia and Asia-half of the known world. For six more years his army kept on marching and conquered Afghanistan, Hindu Kush, Samarkand, Tashkent and Khyber pass. Then he entered India. 

Porus surrendered to Alexander.

After entering Asia he started living in luxury. He married a rich and beautiful princess, Roxana. He fought his last great battle with the brave Indian king, Porus. He won this battle but with great difficulties. Alexander hoped to reach the river Ganga, but when his soldiers reached the river Beas, they refused to go further. They had been away from their homes for more then eight years. Alexander tried his best to persuade them but they did not move further. They marched back to their homes. Alexander developed high fever on the way and died in June 323 B.C.

There Is Nothing Impossible To Him Who Will Try.  - Alexander the Great

Rise of The Roman Empire

👑 The Roman Empire, located along the Mediterranean Sea, was one of the largest and most enduring in world history. It grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC.

        Ancient Roman Empire Map.

👑 Rome was a hub of technology, literature, culture and architecture. The Romans built strong arched bridges, and mastered the concept of "running water" using aqueducts that, among other other things, supplied public baths. 

               Romans Aqueducts. 

👑 The saying "All Road Lead to Rome" originated from the fact that the engineers of the Roman age created an unparalleled network of roads, spread over approximately 50,000 miles (80,000 km).

              Ancient Rome Roads. 

👑  Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of war, law, language, religion and art in the western world.

       Ancient Romans Architecture.

👑  Theater was very important in the lives of the Romans. It was another way of keeping people busy and happy, so they would not plot against the emperor.  

          Ancient Roman period Theater.

👑 Julius Caesar:

                             🔱 Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC) was a Roman statesman, general and notable author of a Latin Prose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

                      Julius Caesar.

                            🔱 Caesar's Victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and Rhine. Julius Caesar introduced the Julian calendar and Julius face was depicted on Roman coins.

   Julian Calendar and Julius faced coins. 

" I Came, I Saw, I Conquered. "— Julius Caesar.   

The Protestant Reformation

As the Renaissance spread throughout Europe, the standard of living improved and more people could afford to recieve a formal education. These educated people felt that the practices and teachings of the Church were not consistent with the teachings found in the scriptures. So, they began to criticize the Catholic Church. The movement that followed is termed as  “ the Protestant Reformation ”. 

       Reformation in Germany by Luther.

The Protestant Reformation was led by Martin Luther, a monk from Germany.

                        Martin Luther. 

 He collected a list of 95 different points of doctrine where he felt that the Church was incorrect and nailed the list to the door of the Catholic Church in Wittenberg,  Germany, on October 31, 1517.

       Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms.

The movement resulted in the Catholic Church loosing out on the money that they collected in exchange for indulgences.

           King Henry VIII of England.

 King Henry VIII supported the ideas of Luther, and laid the foundations of Protestantism in England, which would later transform England from a Catholic to a Protestant nation.

     Fight between Islam and Protestants.

By 1603, the Protestant Reformation in this country was complete. And Martin Luther founded a new religion known as Lutheranism.

“ The Law Says, “ Do This ”, And It Is Never Done. Grace Says, “ Believe In This ”, And Everything Is Already Done.”  — Martin Luther.   

The Egyptian Civilization

Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa and it developed around the river Nile. Egypt was an agricultural state. The Egyptian turned desert patches into farmlands, irritating them with the Nile's water. The yearly flooding of the Nile enriched the soil and brought good harvests and wealth to the land. The people of ancient Egypt built mudbrick homes in villages and in country.

Egyptian Civilization Map

The main Egyptian god was Amon Re, the king of all gods. One important Egyptian symbol was that of the solar disk surrounded by the sacred snake. Crocodiles were sacred in the ancient Egypt, and they were even embalmed. Ibis was the sacred bird.

                            Amon Re

Egyptians used hiéroglyphic inscriptions - a writing system using picture symbols or diagrams. These diagrams were thought to have magical powers.

Hieroglyphic Inscriptions

 To preserve the magical power of their art. the Egyptians believed they must copy exactly the style handed down through the ages. This meant that most artists painted in the same way, and the people they painted all looked the same.

The Egyptians loved music and played instruments like the harp. They loved beauty and fashion; eye paint was worn both by men and women. They also used a lot of perfume and jewellery .

The Egyptian people believed that their rulers, or pharaohs, were gods, and that they would continue to work even after their death. So, they preserved the bodies of the kings through the process of mummification. Mummies were entombed and included food, gifts and provisions were kept there for the afterlife.

The Pyramid Of Giza 

The pyramids were built to contain the tombs of pharaohs To avoid the theft of the treasures and tomb's profanation, the architects built a real labyrinth of false passages inside the pyramid, to confuse the thieves. The pyramids were the earliest buildings ever to be made by precisely cutting and putting together great blocks of stone. One of the most famous pyramids is the Great Pyramid of Khufu. It has 2,300,000 blocks and each block in the pyramid weighs 2.5tons.

Mummification 

The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC and lasted for three millennia until the conquest of Alexander the Great.

 “ From The Heights Of These Pyramids, Forty Centuries Look Down Upon Us. ” 

                                   — Napoleon Bonaparte.