Augustus Caesar: The Architect of Roman Empire

Roman Empire's Master Builder: Augustus Caesar

            Among the most important individuals in ancient Roman history is Gaius Octavius, often known as Augustus Caesar. He was not just the first Roman emperor but also a brilliant administrator, politician, and strategist. The Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire under his rule, which had a lasting impact on the development of Western civilization.

Augustus Caesar.

Beginnings and Path to Power:

            Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC, into a wealthy family with strong political ties. Julius Caesar, the renowned statesman and general, was his great-uncle. Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC marked the beginning of Augustus' ascent to power. He inherited Caesar's troops' allegiance and a substantial income at the age of eighteen, which he masterfully used to further his political goals.

After a series of calculated moves and alliances. Augustus beat adversaries Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC to win the subsequent power war. After this resounding triumph, he assumed absolute power over Rome.

The Rule of Augustus:

            From 27 BC until his death in 14 AD, Augustus governed as emperor. He instituted a number of reforms during his protracted rule that revolutionized Roman society and cemented his authority. His creation of the Principate, a new form of administration that blended aspects of autocracy and republicanism, was one of his greatest accomplishments. Augustus retained the appearance of republican institutions, but in reality, he ruled as princeps, or "first citizen."

In order to preserve order and secure his rule, Augustus launched large-scale public works initiatives across the empire, building monuments, aqueducts, and highways. In order to increase the Roman military's efficiency and fidelity to the imperial crown, he also reformed it.

Augustus's Statue in Rome.

Pax Romana and Cultural Renaissance:

            The Roman Empire had a time of comparatively calm and prosperity under Augustus' reign, which is referred to as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace." Unprecedented cultural and economic success, as well as architectural wonders like the building of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum of Augustus, occurred during this period.

Augustus encouraged a literary and artistic renaissance that gave rise to well-known poets like Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. During his reign, poets and authors extolled the virtues of Rome's imperial rule, ushering in the golden age of Roman literature.

The consequences and Legacy:

            The impact of Augustus Caesar is significant and long-lasting. He established the groundwork for the Roman Empire and established precedents that influenced Western civilization for generations to come. Under his rule, Rome's imperial expansion and cultural domination began, ushering in a period of stability and prosperity.

Octavian's (63 B.C to AD. 14)

Many Romans respected Augustus for his pragmatist leadership and political acumen, despite his tendency toward autocracy. Through propaganda and art, his image was skillfully constructed to present him as the beneficent emperor who would restore Roman grandeur.

At the age of 75, Augustus Caesar passed away in AD 14, leaving behind a strong empire and a long-lasting legacy. With his reign, the Roman Republic came to an end and a new chapter in human history began, one in which emperors ruled over enormous swaths of territory for generations to come. Being the mastermind behind imperial Rome, Augustus is still regarded as one of the most important historical personalities. 

"Power Is Not Given, It Is Taken." --- Augustus Caesar.   

Why Does Thunder follow Lighting?

During the rainy season we often see lightning in the sky followed by thunder. Do you know what this lightning is and how thunder follows it? In ancient times whenever man saw lightning in the sky and heard thunder he used to believe that gods were angry and punishing him for some sin. Benjamin Franklin was the first person who, in 1872, scientifically explained the occurrence of lightning. In fact, whenever the sky gets overcast with clouds, the small particles of water present in them get charged due to air friction. 

In the process, some clouds become positively charged, while some others negatively charged. When a positively-charged cloud approaches a negatively charged one. There develops a potential difference of millions of volts between them. Because of this high voltage, there is a sudden electric discharge through the air between the two clouds and a streak of light is seen. This is called 'lightning'. The electric discharge through the air produces a large amount of heat due to which the atmospheric air suddenly expands. 

Lighting. 

With this sudden expansion, the innumerable molecules of the air collide with one another producing sound. This is called 'thunder'. Although lightning and thunder are produced simultaneously, yet we see the flash of lightning first. It is so because the velocity of light is very high i.e.,300000 kms.per second. On the other hand velocity of sound is only 332 metres per second. Thus, because of its high velocity, light immediately reaches our eyes, but the sound takes some time to reach our ears.

Whenever a charged cloud passes by some tall tree or high building, by induction, it produces the opposite charge on that tree or building. When the amount of charge so produced is very high, there is a sudden electric discharge in the air. It is then said that lightning has struck such tree or building.

To protect high buildings from such mishaps pointed rods of copper or some other metal are fixed on the top of buildings which passes through them and are buried deep in the earth.

These are called 'lightning conductors'. Whenever some charged cloud passes by such a building and produces opposite charge on it, the charge goes to the earth through the rod and does not damage the building. This is how buildings are protected from the lightning.

"THERE IS A CRACK IN EVERYTHING, THAT'S HOW THE LIGHT GETS IN." - LEONARD COMEN. 

Why is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Is the Tower of Pisa Leaning?

Everybody knows that in the city of Pisa in Italy, there is a beautiful tower that "leans" Very ew people know the reason of its leaning Every year thousands of people go there to see the der made of white marble The walls are four meters thick at its base. It has eight story and in 55 meters high. There is a stairway which leads to the top and has 300 steps From as top one can have a magnificent view of the city and the sea which is ten kilometer away.   

Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy.

Now the question arises: What makes this tower lean and why it does not fall? At the top, the tower is five  meters away from the perpendicular. It leans over by five meters If we drop ball from it's top, a would hit the ground five meters away from its base. It was intended as a bell tower for the cathedral which is nearby. Its construction was started in 1174 and completed in 1350 When the construction started nobody thought that it would lean, but it started leaning after the third story was completed. The foundations of the tower were laid sand and this may explain why it leans. Since the tower started leaning, the plans of its constructs were modified and the tower was completed. During the last one hundred years the tower has leaned another 30 cm.

Now the question arises: Even while leaning, why does it not tall?  According to science anything well remain stable till the vertical line drawn from its center of gravity passes through The center of gravity is that point where the whole of the mass of the body is  supposed to be concentrated. Till today the vertical line from the center of gravity has been falling within the base of the tower. That is why it has not fallen. It is believed that when the tower leans further and the line from its center of gravity pass out of its base, it will fall down According to some engineers the tower will definitely fall one day.

"Rome Wasn't Built In A Day. " 

Alexander the Great

    Even after many centuries of his death Alexander the Great is still regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of the world in human history. This brave soldier died in Babylon over 2000 years ago at the age of thirty-three only.

His empire, stretching from Greece to India, disintegrated after his death. But the cities founded by him are still there. It is said that he founded about 70 cities during his short span of life.

Alexander the Great.

The story goes that when Alexander was only a boy of fourteen, he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus whom nobody else had been able to control. He rode this horse in all his battles. This horse died in a battle in India. He built a town and named it after the brave horse.

Alexander's father, Philip, became the king of Macedonia in 359 B.C. He raised his own army and planned an invasion of the great Persian empire. But he was murdered in 336 B.C. in a palace conspiracy. After him, Alexander became the king at the age of twenty.

Macedonia Empire Under Alexander the great.

Alexander had received the training of warfare from his father. The great philosopher Aristotle was his intellectual mentor. After his father's death, a serious, revolt broke out in his kingdom. Alexander restored order in a very short time. The young Alexander attacked the Persian empire about 334 B.C. There he fought two battles and achieved resounding victories. He was well trained in the tactics of warfare. He was a fearless man. After conquering Persia, he attacked Egypt. He conquered Egypt also and established a city called Alexandria at the mouth of river Nile.

Alexander in India.

When Alexander entered Asia Minor, he was shown the chariot of the ancient king Gordius and was told of a legend that whoever could untie the knot binding the chariot would rule the world. Alexander seized a sword and cut the knot. By now Alexander was the king of Macedonia, Greece, Egypt, Persia and Asia-half of the known world. For six more years his army kept on marching and conquered Afghanistan, Hindu Kush, Samarkand, Tashkent and Khyber pass. Then he entered India. 

Porus surrendered to Alexander.

After entering Asia he started living in luxury. He married a rich and beautiful princess, Roxana. He fought his last great battle with the brave Indian king, Porus. He won this battle but with great difficulties. Alexander hoped to reach the river Ganga, but when his soldiers reached the river Beas, they refused to go further. They had been away from their homes for more then eight years. Alexander tried his best to persuade them but they did not move further. They marched back to their homes. Alexander developed high fever on the way and died in June 323 B.C.

There Is Nothing Impossible To Him Who Will Try.  - Alexander the Great

Sir Isaac Newton and The Foundations of Physics

Introduction

    Isaac Newton, one of the most brilliant minds in the history of science, is renowned for his groundbreaking contributions to physics. His profound insights into the laws of motion and universal gravitation laid the foundation for classical mechanics and revolutionized our understanding of the physical world. In this article, we will explore the life and achievements of this iconic physicist, as well as his profound influence on the field of physics. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) 

Early Life and Education

Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, England. His early life was marked by hardship, as he grew up in a farming family following the premature death of his father. However, his exceptional intellect soon became evident, and he attended The King's School in Grantham, where his interest in mathematics and science first took root.

In 1661, Newton enrolled at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he embarked on a journey that would change the course of scientific history. At Cambridge, he delved into the study of mathematics and physics, laying the groundwork for his future groundbreaking discoveries.

Laws of Motion

Newton's three laws of motion, often referred to as Newton's Laws, are the cornerstone of classical mechanics. They describe the fundamental principles governing the motion of objects and remain integral to our understanding of the physical universe.

1. Newton's First Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia

Newton's first law states that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. In other words, an object will maintain its state of motion unless compelled to change by an unbalanced force.

This law fundamentally altered the way we perceive motion, introducing the concept of inertia, which is the tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion.

2. Newton's Second Law of Motion: The Law of Force and Acceleration

The second law of motion relates force, mass, and acceleration. It can be expressed mathematically as F = ma, where F represents force, m is the mass of the object, and a is its acceleration. This law elucidates the relationship between force and the rate of change of an object's velocity.

Newton's second law allowed for precise calculations of how forces influence the motion of objects, making it an invaluable tool in both science and engineering.

3. Newton's Third Law of Motion: The Law of Action and Reaction

Newton's third law posits that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In simpler terms, when one object exerts a force on another, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. This law is the foundation of the conservation of momentum and explains phenomena as diverse as rocket propulsion and walking.

Universal Gravitation

Newton's law of universal gravitation was a milestone in the history of science. Published in his work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in 1687, it revolutionized our understanding of the force that governs the motion of celestial bodies.

The law of universal gravitation states that every mass attracts every other mass in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This discovery provided a unified explanation for the motion of the planets, the behavior of tides, and the falling of objects on Earth. It effectively merged terrestrial and celestial mechanics into a single coherent framework.

The Impact of Newton's Work

Isaac Newton's laws and theories radically transformed our understanding of the natural world. His work became the cornerstone of classical physics, and it still forms the basis of our scientific endeavors today. His influence is immeasurable, and here are a few areas where his legacy is most pronounced:

1. Astronomy: Newton's law of universal gravitation made it possible to calculate the orbits of planets and predict astronomical events, leading to the eventual discovery of Neptune and the exploration of outer space.

2. Engineering: Newton's laws of motion are foundational principles in engineering, allowing us to design everything from bridges to spacecraft with precision.

3. Modern Science: His methods of inquiry and mathematical rigor laid the groundwork for the scientific method and critical thinking in science.

4. Mathematics: Newton made significant contributions to mathematics, including the development of calculus, which is a fundamental branch of mathematics.

5. Physics: Newton's laws are still taught in every physics classroom, and while they have been refined with the advent of relativity and quantum mechanics, they remain incredibly accurate in everyday situations.

Conclusion

Isaac Newton's work revolutionized our understanding of the physical universe. His laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation have stood the test of time, remaining as critical pillars in the edifice of modern physics. Beyond his scientific contributions, Newton's methods of inquiry, dedication to empirical evidence, and commitment to mathematical rigor continue to inspire scientists and thinkers to this day. His life and work serve as a testament to the power of human intellect and the enduring impact of scientific exploration. As we celebrate the genius of Isaac Newton, we are reminded of the endless possibilities that await those who dare to inquire and explore the mysteries of the cosmos. 

"No Great Discovery Was Ever Made Without A Bold Guess. "--Sir Isaac Newton. 

Explanation of Photoelectric Effect and their Laws

The experimentally observed facts of photoelectric effect can be explained the help of Einstein's photoelectric equation. 

Photo-electric Effect

i) Each incident photon liberates one electron, then the increase of intensity of the light (the number of photons per unit area per unit time) increases the number of electrons emitted thereby increasing the photo-current, The same has been experimentally observed.

ii) From K(max)=h v—Φ•, it is evident max that K is proportional to the frequency max of the incident light and is independent of intensity of the light.

iii) There must be minimum energy (equal to the work function of the metal) for incident photons to liberate electrons from the metal surface. ( h v= h v 1/2 m v^2 ). 

Below this value of energy, emission of electrons is not possible. Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency called threshold frequency below which there is no photoelectric emission.

iv) According to quantum concept, the transfer of photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous so that there is no time lag between incidence of photons and ejection of electrons. Thus, the photoelectric effect is explained on the basis of quantum concept of light.

Laws of Photoelectric Effect :

i) For a given metallic surface, the emission of photo-electrons takes place only if the frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.

Photo-electric Effect

ii) For a given frequency of incident light above threshold value, the number of photo-electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The saturation current is also directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. 

iii) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of intensity of the incident light.

iv) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.

v) There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photo-electrons.

" When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change. " --- Max Planck.--- 

The History Of Australia (From Land to Sea)

 The History Of Australia:

🦘 Australia became inhabitant over 40,000 years ago by the Indigenous Australians or Aborigines, who are believed to have come to Australia by land bridges and short sea crossing from Southeast Asia. These people were hunters and gathers. During that time, oral history was passed down through the generations in the form of tales, myths, and songs. Over the centuries that followed, multiple colloquial language, culture and lifestyle survived in different regions of the continent.

 Map of The Commonwealth of Australia.

🦘 In the 17th Century, the European explorers began to frequent the west and north coast of Australia.

Willam Janszoon (Dutch Explorer).

William Janszoon, a Dutch navigator sighted the Cape York Peninsula in 1606, but made no attempt at settling there. In the mid 18th century. The British had an overcrowded prison population and required a new penal colony. 

James Cook (British Explorer).

In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Britain, naming it New South Wales.

The First Fleet By  Captain James Cook.

In 1788, the first fleet arrived carrying 750 convicts. This was the first penal colony that is now the Sydney.

The Second Fleet Struggle in Port Arthur.

🦘 The second penal colony was called Port Arthur, which is a tourist attraction now. The number of colonies grew over the following decades. Australia grew into a productive farming land and a major wool producer. The mid 19th century witnessed a gold rush in Victoria and New South Wales.

James Cook Landed on Australia.

🦘 In January 1st 1901, the six colonies were federated to form one nation, and the commonwealth of Australia was born. The new constitution aimed at creating a new social, cultural,and economical atmosphere, leaving the pitfalls of the old times behind. Over the following decades, Australia continued to expand and after World War II, there was a mass immigration from Europe. At one point in time, Melbourne became the largest Greek populated city outside of the Athens. the immigration has come from Asian neighbors.

🦘 Now, Australia is flourishing in terms of its national media and international business reputation. Both as a nation and as a continent.

🦘 And Australia is a continent and a country. It is known as the land down under because it is below the Equator.

"Don't worry about the world ending today. It's already tomorrow in Australia" — Charles M. Schulz.

The Story of Sumerian's Civilization

 The Sumerian Civilization emerged upon the flood plain of the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers about 4000 BC. The social structure of the Sumerians was decidedly different from other societies of that and later times. 

Sumerian Civilization Map.

The Sumerian Architect.

The Sumerian communities were city states organised around a temple and ruled by a priesthood.. The temple grounds were separated from the rest of the city.

Irrigation system of Sumerians.

The cities of Sumer were the first to practice intensive, year - round agriculture. They developed core agricultural techniques including large - scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organised irrigation, and the use of a specialised labour force.

The Cuneiform Language 

The Old Buildings of Sumerian Civilization.

In addition to the priests and peasants, there was a class of craftsmen, who devoted most of their time to producing things for either the temples or the warrior-soldiers who protected the temple community. With wars of défense, the role of the warriors was manifested in the rule of kings. 

Some Inventions of Sumerians (  Sun Clock ). 

The Sumerians made the world's first boats, using the canal system, for easy waterborne transportation of people, goods, and cattle. 

The Goddess of Sumerians.

 " Sumer Had devised the system of structural violence that would prevail in every single agrarian state until the modern period, when agriculture ceased to be economic basis of civilization. ". 

                                            —Karen Armstrong.   

Rise of The Roman Empire

👑 The Roman Empire, located along the Mediterranean Sea, was one of the largest and most enduring in world history. It grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC.

        Ancient Roman Empire Map.

👑 Rome was a hub of technology, literature, culture and architecture. The Romans built strong arched bridges, and mastered the concept of "running water" using aqueducts that, among other other things, supplied public baths. 

               Romans Aqueducts. 

👑 The saying "All Road Lead to Rome" originated from the fact that the engineers of the Roman age created an unparalleled network of roads, spread over approximately 50,000 miles (80,000 km).

              Ancient Rome Roads. 

👑  Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of war, law, language, religion and art in the western world.

       Ancient Romans Architecture.

👑  Theater was very important in the lives of the Romans. It was another way of keeping people busy and happy, so they would not plot against the emperor.  

          Ancient Roman period Theater.

👑 Julius Caesar:

                             🔱 Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC) was a Roman statesman, general and notable author of a Latin Prose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

                      Julius Caesar.

                            🔱 Caesar's Victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and Rhine. Julius Caesar introduced the Julian calendar and Julius face was depicted on Roman coins.

   Julian Calendar and Julius faced coins. 

" I Came, I Saw, I Conquered. "— Julius Caesar.   

The Protestant Reformation

As the Renaissance spread throughout Europe, the standard of living improved and more people could afford to recieve a formal education. These educated people felt that the practices and teachings of the Church were not consistent with the teachings found in the scriptures. So, they began to criticize the Catholic Church. The movement that followed is termed as  “ the Protestant Reformation ”. 

       Reformation in Germany by Luther.

The Protestant Reformation was led by Martin Luther, a monk from Germany.

                        Martin Luther. 

 He collected a list of 95 different points of doctrine where he felt that the Church was incorrect and nailed the list to the door of the Catholic Church in Wittenberg,  Germany, on October 31, 1517.

       Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms.

The movement resulted in the Catholic Church loosing out on the money that they collected in exchange for indulgences.

           King Henry VIII of England.

 King Henry VIII supported the ideas of Luther, and laid the foundations of Protestantism in England, which would later transform England from a Catholic to a Protestant nation.

     Fight between Islam and Protestants.

By 1603, the Protestant Reformation in this country was complete. And Martin Luther founded a new religion known as Lutheranism.

“ The Law Says, “ Do This ”, And It Is Never Done. Grace Says, “ Believe In This ”, And Everything Is Already Done.”  — Martin Luther.